Thursday 29 October 2015

MODULATION

In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.
In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a baseband message signal into a passband signal.
A modulator is a device that performs modulation. A demodulator (sometimes detector or demod) is a device that performsdemodulation, the inverse of modulation. A modem (from modulator–demodulator) can perform both operations.
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel at a different frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to 300–3400 Hz) or over a limited radio frequency band.
Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels (several different carrier frequencies).
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network.
The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.
In music synthesizers, modulation may be used to synthesise waveforms with an extensive overtone spectrum using a small number of oscillators. In this case the carrier frequency is typically in the same order or much lower than the modulating waveform (see frequency modulation synthesis or ring modulation synthesis).

Analog modulation methods

A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave.
In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal.

List of common analog modulation techniques

Common analog modulation techniques are:
  • Angle modulation, which is approximately constant envelope
    • Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)
    • Phase modulation (PM) (here the phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)

Digital modulation methods

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (themodulation alphabet).
Schematic of 4 baud (8 bit/s) data link containing arbitrarily chosen values.
A simple example: A telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds, for example tones, and not digital bits (zeros and ones). Computers may however communicate over a telephone line by means of modems, which are representing the digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four alternative symbols (corresponding to a musical instrument that can generate four different tones, one at a time), the first symbol may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10 and the fourth 11. If the modem plays a melody consisting of 1000 tones per second, the symbol rate is 1000 symbols/second, orbaud. Since each tone (i.e., symbol) represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice the symbol rate, i.e. 2000 bits per second. This is similar to the technique used by dialup modems as opposed to DSL modems.
According to one definition of digital signal, the modulated signal is a digital signal. According to another definition,the modulation is a form of digital-to-analog conversion. Most textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes as a form of digital transmission, synonymous to data transmission; very few would consider it as analog transmission.

Fundamental digital modulation methods

The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
In QAM, an inphase signal (or I, with one example being a cosine waveform) and a quadrature phase signal (or Q, with an example being a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite number of amplitudes, and then summed. It can be seen as a two-channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of PSK and ASK.
In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase, frequency or amplitude.
If the alphabet consists of M = 2^N  alternative symbols, each symbol represents a message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is f_{S}symbols/second (or baud), the data rate is N f_{S} bit/second.
For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate.
In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the y-axis, for each symbol.

Pulse modulation methods

Pulse modulation schemes aim at transferring a narrowband analog signal over an analog baseband channel as a two-level signal by modulating a pulse wave. Some pulse modulation schemes also allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal (i.e., as a quantized discrete-time signal) with a fixed bit rate, which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system, for example, some line code. These are not modulation schemes in the conventional sense since they are not channel coding schemes, but should be considered as source coding schemes, and in some cases analog-to-digital conversion techniques.
Analog-over-analog methods
Analog-over-digital methods

Miscellaneous modulation techniques



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Wednesday 28 October 2015

CONVOLUTION

In mathematics and, in particular, functional analysis, convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions f and g, producing a third function that is typically viewed as a modified version of one of the original functions, giving the area overlap between the two functions as a function of the amount that one of the original functions is translated. Convolution is similar tocross-correlation. It has applications that include probability, statistics, computer vision, natural language processing, imageand signal processing, engineering, and differential equations.
The convolution can be defined for functions on groups other than Euclidean space. For example, periodic functions, such as the discrete-time Fourier transform, can be defined on a circle and convolved by periodic convolution. (See row 10 atDTFT#Properties.)  And discrete convolution can be defined for functions on the set of integers. Generalizations of convolution have applications in the field of numerical analysis and numerical linear algebra, and in the design and implementation of finite impulse response filters in signal processing.
Computing the inverse of the convolution operation is known as deconvolution.
                               

Historical developments

One of the earliest uses of the convolution integral appeared in D'Alembert's derivation of Taylor's theorem in Recherches sur différents points importants du système du monde,published in 1754.[1]
Also, an expression of the type:
\int f(u)\cdot g(x-u) du
is used by Sylvestre François Lacroix on page 505 of his book entitled Treatise on differences and series, which is the last of 3 volumes of the encyclopedic series: Traité du calcul différentiel et du calcul intégral, Chez Courcier, Paris, 1797-1800.[2] Soon thereafter, convolution operations appear in the works of Pierre Simon Laplace, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, Siméon Denis Poisson, and others. The term itself did not come into wide use until the 1950s or 60s. Prior to that it was sometimes known as faltung (which means folding in German), composition product, superposition integral, and Carson's integral.[3] Yet it appears as early as 1903, though the definition is rather unfamiliar in older uses.[4][5]
The operation:
\int_0^t\varphi(s)\psi(t-s) \, ds, \qquad 0\le t<\infty,

Fast convolution algorithms

In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform techniques (Knuth 1997, §4.3.3.C; von zur Gathen & Gerhard 2003, §8.2).
Eq.1 requires N arithmetic operations per output value and N2 operations for N outputs. That can be significantly reduced with any of several fast algorithms. Digital signal processing and other applications typically use fast convolution algorithms to reduce the cost of the convolution to O(N log N) complexity.
The most common fast convolution algorithms use fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms via the circular convolution theorem. Specifically, the circular convolution of two finite-length sequences is found by taking an FFT of each sequence, multiplying pointwise, and then performing an inverse FFT. Convolutions of the type defined above are then efficiently implemented using that technique in conjunction with zero-extension and/or discarding portions of the output. Other fast convolution algorithms, such as theSchönhage–Strassen algorithm or the Mersenne transform,[9] use fast Fourier transforms in other rings.
If one sequence is much longer than the other, zero-extension of the shorter sequence and fast circular convolution is not the most computationally efficient method available.[10]Instead, decomposing the longer sequence into blocks and convolving each block allows for faster algorithms such as the Overlap–save method and Overlap–add method.[11] A hybrid convolution method that combines block and FIR algorithms allows for a zero input-output latency that is useful for real-time convolution computations
If G is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if f and g are real or complex valued integrable functions on G, then we can define their convolution by
(f * g)(x) = \int_G f(y) g(y^{-1}x)\,d\lambda(y). \,
It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless G isunimodular, the convolution defined in this way is not the same as \textstyle{\int f(xy^{-1})g(y) \, d\lambda(y)}. The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function g commutes with left translation in the group:
L_h(f*g) = (L_hf)*g.
Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former.
On locally compact abelian groups, a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. Thecircle group T with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example. For a fixed g in L1(T), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space L2(T):
T {f}(x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{\mathbf{T}} {f}(y) g( x - y) \, dy.
The operator T is compact. A direct calculation shows that its adjoint T* is convolution with
\bar{g}(-y). \,
By the commutativity property cited above, T is normal: T*T = TT*. Also, T commutes with the translation operators. Consider the family S of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then S is a commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory, there exists an orthonormal basis {hk} that simultaneously diagonalizes S. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have
h_k (x) = e^{ikx}, \quad k \in \mathbb{Z},\;
which are precisely the characters of T. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above.
A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order n. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices, and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform.
A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary representations form an orthonormal basis in L2 by thePeter–Weyl theorem, and an analog of the convolution theorem continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform.

Convolution of measures

Let G be a topological group. If μ and ν are finite Borel measures on G, then their convolution μ∗ν is defined by
(\mu * \nu)(E) = \int\!\!\!\int 1_E(xy) \,d\mu(x) \,d\nu(y)
for each measurable subset E of G. The convolution is also a finite measure, whose total variation satisfies
\|\mu * \nu\| \le \|\mu\| \|\nu\|. \,
In the case when G is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is just the convolution of the two separate density functions.
If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group (R,+), then the convolution μ∗ν is the probability distribution of the sum X + Y of two independent random variables Xand Y whose respective distributions are μ and ν.

Applications


Gaussian blur can be used in order to obtain a smooth grayscale digital image of a halftone print
Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in science, engineering and mathematics.
  • In image processing
See also: digital signal processing
In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and related processes.
In optics, an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp image with a lens function. The photographic term for this isbokeh.
In image processing applications such as adding blurring.
  • In digital data processing
In analytical chemistry, Savitzky–Golay smoothing filters are used for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra.
In statistics, a weighted moving average is a convolution.
In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse response of a real room on a digital audio signal.
In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other.[15]
  • In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of the elapsed time since each input value occurred.
  • In physics, wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition principle", a convolution operation makes an appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative, the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function.
In Time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
In computational fluid dynamics, the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost.
In kernel density estimation, a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as an isotropic Gaussian. (Diggle 1995).


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Tuesday 27 October 2015

ARM -PROCESSOR

An ARM processor is one of a family of CPUs based on the RISC (reduced instruction set computer) architecture developed by Advanced RISC Machines (ARM).
ARM makes 32-bit and 64-bit RISC multi-core processors. RISC processors are designed to perform a smaller number of types of computer instructions so that they can operate at a higher speed, performing more millions of instructions per second (MIPS).  By stripping out unneeded instructions and optimizing pathways, RISC processors provide outstanding performance at a fraction of the power demand of CISC (complex instruction set computing) devices.
ARM processors are extensively used in consumer electronic devices such as smartphones,tablets, multimedia players and other mobile devices, such as wearables. Because of their reduced instruction set, they require fewer transistors, which enables a smaller die size for the integrated circuitry (IC). The ARM processor’s smaller size, reduced complexity and lower power consumption makes them suitable for increasingly miniaturized devices.
                                        Image result for arm processor in electronics
ARM processor features include:
  • Load/store architecture.
  • An orthogonal instruction set.
  • Mostly single-cycle execution.
  • Enhanced power-saving design.
  • 64 and 32-bit execution states for scalable high performance.
  • Hardware virtualization support.
The simplified design of ARM processors enables more efficient multi-core processing and easier coding for developers. While they don't have the same raw compute throughput as the products of x86 market leader Intel, ARM processors sometimes exceed the performance of Intel processors for applications that exist on both architectures.
The head-to-head competition between the vendors is increasing as ARM is finding its way into full size notebooks.  Microsoft, for example, offers ARM-based versions of Surface computers. The cleaner code base of Windows RT versus x86 versions may be also partially responsible -- Windows RT is more streamlined because it doesn’t have to support a number of legacy hardwares.
ARM is also moving into the server market,  a move that represents a large change in direction and a hedging of bets on performance-per-watt over raw compute power. AMD offers 8-core versions of ARM processors for its Opteron series of processors. ARM serversrepresent an important shift in server-based computing. A traditional x86-class server with 12, 16, 24 or more cores increases performance by scaling up the speed and sophistication of each processor, using brute force speed and power to handle demanding computing workloads.
In comparison, an ARM server uses perhaps hundreds of smaller, less sophisticated, low-power processors that share processing tasks among that large number instead of just a few higher-capacity processors. This approach is sometimes referred to as “scaling out,” in contrast with the “scaling up” of x86-based servers.
The ARM architecture was originally developed by Acorn Computers in the 1980s.
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